Final Test American Literature II Essays - Psychometrics

Final Test American Literature II Assoc. Prof. Marie Cox Directions: Answer SIX of the following in no less than ONE paragraph. Remember to use examples from the texts to support your answers! This test is open book and open notes [not open each other!] because it deals with critical analysis, not memorization. Place your name on your answer sheet! Do NOT use any additional sources outside of your notes/text for answers! Honor! Time period: 1 hour and 15 minutes Due date: Thursday, May 2nd, by midnight Points: 60 1.Briefly discuss the significance of noblesse oblige in Faulkners A Rose for Emily. 2.Faulkners A Rose for Emily is often categorized as Southern Gothic. Briefly discuss the accuracy/inaccuracy of this categorization. 3.Briefly discuss Faulkners use of setting and time period in his story. Symbolic? Explain. 4.Flannery OConnor believed that Grace changes character, that reality is something to which we must be returned at considerable cost. So how is this reconciled or explained with a character like Joy/Hulga? 5.Will a new Joy/Hulga come out of the barn at the end of Good Country People? Defend your speculation. 6.OConnor, a devout Roman Catholic, once wrote, I see from the standpoint of Christian orthodoxy. This means that for me the meaning of life is centered in our redemption by Christ and what I see in the world I see in its relation to that. Is her philosophy evident in her stories? Explain. 7.Comment on OConnors use of weather in The Life You Save May Be Your Own. 8.OConnor once said, Evil is not a problem to be solved but a mystery to be endured. Do we see this in her stories, her characters? Explain. 9.What does the main character in No Name Woman mean when she says My aunt haunts me? 10.What is the connection between the title Woman Hollering Creek and Cleofilas? Explain. 11.Discuss the themes of silence, repression, and being caught in two cultural worlds, as seen in Kingstons No Name Woman. 12.Discuss the role of talk story in Kingstons works. Feel free to answer an extra question from above for possible bonus points!

Science Class Question-and-Answer Warmup Topics

Science Class Question-and-Answer Warmup Topics Looking for some quick and easy reviews  to make sure your students are paying attention in science class? Heres  is a list of short question-and-answer topics  that can be used in any general high-school level science class. These can be used for general topic review, pop quizzes, or combined for a subject exam.   Week One - Biology 1. What are the steps of the scientific method?   Answer: making observations, forming a hypothesis, experimenting and drawing conclusionsContinued Below... 2. What do the following scientific prefixes mean?bio, entomo, exo, gen, micro, ornitho, zoo Answer: bio-life, entomo-insect, exo-outside, gen-beginning or origin, micro-small, ornitho-bird, zoo-animal 3. What is the standard unit of measurement in the International System of Measurement? Answer: Meter 4. What is the difference between weight and mass? Answer: Weight is the measure of gravitational force one object has on another. Weight can change based on the amount of gravity. Mass is the amount of matter in an object. Mass is constant. 5. What is the standard unit of volume? Answer: Liter Week Two - Biology 1. What is the hypothesis of biogenesis?Answer: It states that living things can only come from living things. Francisco Redi(1626-1697) did experiments with flies and meat to support this hypothesis. 2. Name three scientists that did experiments related to the hypothesis of biogenesis? Answer: Francisco Redi (1626-1697), John Needham (1713-1781), Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729-1799), Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) 3. What are the characteristics of living things? Answer: Life is cellular, uses energy, grows, metabolizes, reproduces, responds to the environment and moves. 4. What are the two types of reproduction? Answer: Asexual reproduction and Sexual reproduction 5. Describe one way in which a plant responds to stimuli Answer: A plant can angle or move towards a light source. Some sensitive plants will actually curl their leaves after being touched. Week Three - Basic Chemistry 1. What are the three main subatomic particles of the atom?   Answer: proton, neutron, and electron 2. What is an ion? Answer: An atom that has gained or lost one or more electrons. This gives the atom a positive or negative charge. 3. A compound is matter composed of two or more elements chemically bonded. What is the difference between a covalent bond and an ionic bond? Answer: covalent - electrons are shared; ionic - electrons are transferred. 4. A mixture is two or more distinct substances that are mixed together but are not chemically bonded. What is the difference between a homogenous mixture and a heterogeneous mixture? Answer: homogenous - The substances are evenly distributed throughout the mixture. An example would be a solution.heterogeneous - The substances are not evenly distributed throughout the mixture. An example would be a suspension.   5. If household ammonia has a pH of 12, is it an acid or a base? Answer: base Week Four - Basic Chemistry 1. What is the difference between organic and inorganic compounds?   Answer: Organic compounds have carbon. 2. What are the three elements that are in the organic compounds called carbohydrates? Answer: carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen 3. What are the building blocks of proteins? Answer: amino acids 4. State the Law of Conservation of Mass and Energy. Answer: Mass is neither created or destroyed.Energy is neither created or destroyed.   5. When does a skydiver have the greatest potential energy? When does a skydiver have the greatest kinetic energy? Answer: Potential - when he is leaning out of the plane about to jump.Kinetic - when he is plummeting to the earth. Week Five - Cell Biology 1. Which scientist is given credit for being the first to observe and identify cells?   Answer: Robert Hooke 2. What types of cells do not contain membrane-bound organelles and are the oldest known forms of life? Answer: Prokaryotes 3. Which organelle controls a cells activities? Answer: Nucleus 4. Which organelles are known as the powerhouses of the cell because they produce energy? Answer: Mitochondria   5. Which organelle is responsible for the production of protein?   Answer: Ribosomes Week Six - Cells and Cellular Transport 1. In the plant cell, what organelle is responsible for the production of food?   Answer: Chloroplasts 2. What is the main purpose of the cell membrane? Answer: It helps to regulate the passage of materials between the wall and its environment. 3. What do we call the process when a sugar cube dissolves in a cup of water? Answer: Diffusion 4. Osmosis is a type of diffusion. However, what is being diffused in osmosis? Answer: Water   5. What is the difference between endocytosis and exocytosis?   Answer: Endocytosis - the process that cells use to take in large molecules that can not fit through the cell membrane. Exocytosis - the process that cells use to expel large molecules from the cell. Week Seven - Cell Chemistry 1. Would you classify human beings as autotrophs or heterotrophs?   Answer: We are heterotrophs because we gain our food from other sources. 2. What do we collectively call all the reactions taking place in a cell? Answer: Metabolism 3. What is the difference between anabolic and catabolic reactions? Answer: Anabolic - simple substances join to make more complex ones. Catabolic - complex substances are broken down to make simpler ones. 4. Is the burning of wood an endergonic or exergonic reaction? Explain why. Answer: The burning of wood is an exergonic reaction because energy is given off or released in the form of heat. An endergonic reaction uses energy.   5. What are enzymes?   Answer: They are special proteins that act as catalysts in a chemical reaction. Week Eight - Cellular Energy 1. What is the main difference between aerobic and anaerobic respiration?   Answer: Aerobic respiration is a type of cellular respiration that requires oxygen. Anaerobic respiration does not use oxygen. 2. Glycolysis occurs when glucose is changed into this acid. What is the acid?   Answer: Pyruvic Acid 3. What is the main difference between ATP and ADP? Answer: ATP or adenosine triphosphate has one more phosphate group than adenosine diphosphate. 4. Most autotrophs use this process to make food. The process literally translated means putting together light. What do we call this process? Answer: photosynthesis   5. What is the green pigment in the cells of plants called?   Answer: chlorophyll Week Nine - Mitosis and Meiosis 1. Name the five phases of mitosis.   Answer: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, interphase 2. What do we call the division of the cytoplasm?   Answer: cytokinesis 3. In what type of cell division does the chromosome number reduce by one half and gametes form? Answer: meiosis 4. Name the male and female gametes and the process that creates each of them. Answer: female gametes - ova or eggs - oogenesismale gametes - sperm - spermatogenesis   5. Explain the differences between mitosis and meiosis in relation to the daughter cells.   Answer: mitosis - two daughter cells that are identical to each other and the parent cellmeiosis - four daughter cells that contain a varying combination of chromosomes and that are not identical to the parent cells   Week Ten - DNA and RNA 1. Nucleotides are the basis of the DNA molecule. Name the components of a nucleotide.   Answer: Phosphate groups, deoxyribose (a five-carbon sugar) and nitrogenous bases. 2. What is the spiral shape of a DNA molecule called?   Answer: double helix 3. Name the four nitrogenous bases and correctly pair them with one another.   Answer: Adenine always bonds with thymine.Cytosine always bonds with guanine.   4. What is the process that produces RNA from the information in DNA? Answer: transcription 5. RNA contains the base uracil. What base does it replace from DNA? Answer: thymine   Week Eleven - Genetics 1. Name the Austrian Monk that laid the foundation for the study of modern genetics.   Answer: Gregor Mendel 2. What is the difference between homozygous and heterozygous?   Answer: Homozygous - occurs when the two genes for a trait are the same.Heterozygous - occurs when the two genes for a trait are different, also known as a hybrid. 3. What is the difference between dominant and recessive genes? Answer: Dominant - genes that prevent the expression of another gene.Recessive - genes that are suppressed.   4. What is the difference between genotype and phenotype? Answer: Genotype is the genetic makeup of the organism.Phenotype is the outward appearance of the organism. 5. In a particular flower, red is dominant over white. If a heterozygous plant is crossed with another heterozygous plant, what will be the genotypic and phenotypic ratios? You may use a Punnett square to find your answer. Answer: genotypic ratio 1/4 RR, 1/2 Rr, 1/4 rrphenotypic ratio 3/4 Red, 1/4 White   Week Twelve - Applied Genetics Week Twelve Science Warm-Ups: 1. What do we call the changes in hereditary material? Answer: mutations 2. What are the two basic types of mutations? Answer: chromosomal alteration and gene mutation 3. What is the common name for the condition trisomy 21 which occurs because a person has an extra chromosome? Answer: Down Syndrome 4. What do we call the process of crossing animals or plants with desirable characteristics to produce offspring with the same desirable characteristics? Answer: selective breeding 5. The process of forming genetically identical offspring from a single cell is in the news a great deal. What do we call this process. Also, explain if you think it is a good thing. Answer: cloning; answers will vary Week Thirteen - Evolution 1. What do we call the process of new life evolving from pre-existing lifeforms?   Answer: evolution 2. What organism is often classified as a transitional form between reptiles and birds?   Answer: Archaeopteryx 3. What French scientist of the early nineteenth century put forth the hypothesis of use and disuse to explain evolution? Answer: Jean Baptiste Lamarck   4. What islands off the coast of Ecuador were the topic of study for Charles Darwin? Answer: Galapagos Islands 5. An adaptation is an inherited trait that makes an organism better able to survive. Name three types of adaptations. Answer: morphological, physiological, behavioral   Week Fourteen - History of Life 1. What is chemical evolution?   Answer: The process by which inorganic and simple organic compounds change into more complex compounds. 2. Name the three periods of the Mesozoic period.   Answer: Cretaceous, Jurassic, Triassic 3. Adaptive radiation is the rapid expansion of many new species. What group probably experienced adaptive radiation at the beginning of the Paleocene epoch? Answer: mammals   4. There are two competing ideas to explain the mass extinction of dinosaurs. Name the two ideas. Answer: meteor impact hypothesis and climate change hypothesis 5. Horses, donkeys and zebras have a common ancestor in the Pliohippus. Over time these species have become different from each other. What is this pattern of evolution called? Answer: divergence   Week Fifteen - Classification 1. What is the term for the science of classification?   Answer: taxonomy 2. Name the Greek philosopher that introduced the term species.   Answer: Aristotle 3. Name the scientist that created a classification system using species, genus and kingdom. Also tell what he called his naming system. Answer: Carolus Linnaeus; binomial nomenclature   4. According to the hierarchical system of classification there are seven major categories. Name them in order from largest to smallest. Answer: kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species 5. What are the five kingdoms? Answer: Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia   Week Sixteen - Viruses 1. What is a virus?   Answer: A very small particle made up of nucleic acid and protein. 2. What are the two classes of viruses?   Answer: RNA viruses and DNA viruses 3. In viral replication, what do we call the bursting of the cell? Answer: lysis   4. What are the phages called that cause lysis in their hosts? Answer: virulent phages 5. What are short naked strands of RNA with similarities to viruses called? Answer: viroids   Week Seventeen - Bacteria 1. What is a colony?   Answer: A group of celss that are similar and attached to one another. 2. What two pigments do all blue-green bacteria have in common?   Answer: Phycocyanin (blue) and Chlorophyll (green) 3. Name the three groups that most bacteria are divided into. Answer: cocci - spheres; bacilli - rods; spirilla - spirals   4. What is the process by which most bacteria cells divide? Answer: binary fission 5. Name two ways that bacteria exchange genetic material. Answer: conjugation and transformation   Week Eighteen - The Protists 1. What type of organisms make up kingdom Protista?   Answer: simple eukaryotic organisms. 2. Which subkingdom of the protists contain algal protists, which contains fungal protists and which contain animallike protists?   Answer: Protophyta, Gymnomycota, and Protozoa 3. What structure(s) do Euglenoids use to move around? Answer: flagella   4. What are cilia and which Phylum is made up of one-celled organisms that have man of them? Answer: Cilia are short hairlike extensions from a cell; Phylum Ciliata 5. Name two diseases caused by protozoans. Answer: malaria and dysentery   Week Nineteen - Fungi 1. What is a group or network of fungal hyphae called?   Answer: mycelium 2. What are the four phyla of fungi?   Answer: oomycota, zygomycota, ascomycota, basidiomycota 3. What are the land dwelling zygomycota often known as? Answer: molds and blights   4. Name the British scientist that discovered penicillin in 1928. Answer: Dr. Alexander Fleming 5. Name three common products that are the result of fungal activity. Answer: Ex: alcohol, bread, cheese, antibiotics, etc.

Hygiene Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Hygiene - Essay Example Hygiene simply refers to a science that deals with the preservation of health. Hygiene can also be identified as a set of practices that are associated with, or help in the preservation of health. Hygiene recommendations and requirements will vary under different situations both in society and in the medical field. This is because the perception of hygiene among different ethnic groups or cultures may vary and also the hygiene recommendations in a particular field of medicine may vary from those in a different field. The main reason why hygiene is emphasized on in the medical field is because it reduces the risk of spreading diseases. It controls the multiplication and spread of organisms that cause diseases in everyday life settings. There are different types of hygiene that are essential in the preservation of health, for example, hand hygiene. This is the most common societal form of hygiene. It is also referred to as hand washing and health experts recommend the washing of hands with a hand sanitizer such as soap. Hand hygiene is essential in preventing the spread of diseases in everyday life because the hands come in to contact with many things, such as unclean surfaces, and for this reason, it so happens that hands are more prone to transferring bacteria that will cause diseases. Other forms of hygiene may include food hygiene, laundry hygiene, and personal hygiene among many others. In the field of medicine, hygiene is summed up in to medical hygiene. This refers to the practices which regulate the administration of medicine and medical care. The main agenda of medical hygiene is to minimize the spread of diseases or even to prevent diseases from spreading. For example, if there is a patient who has been diagnosed or is showing symptoms of a particular infectious disease, then the prudent medical hygiene procedure that should be followed is isolation. The medical term used for isolation is quarantine. Hand hygiene is also pertinent to medical hygiene. Me dical practitioners are required to wash their hands before handling a patient. This requirement is emphasized more when one is about to enter an operating room but the role that hand hygiene plays in the general hospital or health care setting cannot be overlooked because some bacteria that spread diseases are easily transmittable. In the 20th century, an outbreak of a number of highly infectious and deadly diseases was experienced. One such disease was Ebola. The rate of transmission of these viruses necessitated the tightening of medical hygiene and since then, such practices as proper disposal of medical waste is a key element in medical hygiene. The Role of Hygiene in Adult Nursing Adult nursing is the field of nursing which deals with and cares for adult patients who are suffering from acute and long term illnesses and diseases (Baughan & Smith, 2009). An adult nurse’s primary duty is to support the patient in their recovery process. This kind of support is offered by t he use of care plans, and by carrying out care procedures and assessment. Apart from this, the adult nurse should educate the patient on how they can promote good health. This is where hygiene comes in. Hygiene is important in adult nursing and any other kinds of medical practice because it also helps the patient to recover from the diseases or illnesses that they are suffering from (Bullock, Clark & Marlone, 2012, p. 344). It is evident that adults, especially those who are well advanced in age, have immune systems and bodies which are more prone to diseases. This is because the immune system weakens gradually as the body itself ages. When an adult patient is infected by disease causing bacteria, they are

Recycling Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Recycling - Research Paper Example â€Å"Environmental Ethics† relate to ethical and moral standing, which provides recognition of distinguishing characteristics of environment.1 It is important to initiate such programs through which these environmental issues are addressed and taking such measures that can reduce their adverse effects. Hence, there is a need to have be proactive and be able to understand the human’s role concerning preservation of environment and natural habitat. There is an anthropocentric code of ethics, which takes into consideration, the moral aspects of a human being with environment. However, few thinkers argue that the code of ethics should not just be focusing on the human element, but it should also have moral standing and sentiments for animals and natural habitat. This is necessary in order to conserve the natural resources like river, lakes and other species of ecosystems.2 My ethical standing on these environmental issues is based on the different approaches of scholars. It has been noticed that the environmental issues, which are occurring, have a deep impact on human beings. The pollution, whether it is air, water or land diminishes the health of the individuals, the depleting effect of natural or even manmade resources are affecting the living standard of individuals specially the human beings. In some cases, if there is a reduction of natural sources of herbs and plants then it gives rise to reduction of potential natural medicines for various diseases. In the same way, if there is a natural disaster it affects our homes and living. This approach is anthropocentric which are concerned with cause and effects of nature and environment on human beings.3 In the contrary, there is a â€Å"non-Anthropocentric approach† to environmental ethics, which also takes into consideration of other factors of Eco systems like animals, flora and Fiona. It is necessary that while one remains focused on how the environment

Intellectual Craftsmanship Essay Example for Free

Intellectual Craftsmanship Essay TO THE INDIVIDUAL social scientist who feels himself a part of the classic tradition, social science is the practice of a craft. A man at work on problems of substance, he is among those who are quickly made impatient and weary by elaborate discussions of method-and-theory-in-general; so much of it interrupts his proper studies. It is much better, he believes, to have one account by a working student of how he is going about his work than a dozen , codifications of procedure by specialists who as often as not have never done much work of consequence. Only by conversations in which experienced thinkers exchange information about their actual ways of working can a useful sense of method and theory be imparted to the beginning student. I feel it useful, therefore, to report in some detail how I go about my craft. This is necessarily a personal statement, but it is written with the hope that others, especially those beginning independent work, will make it less personal by the facts of their own experience. 1.  It is best to begin, I think, by reminding you, the beginning student, that the most admirable thinkers within the scholarly community you have chosen to join do not split their work from their lives. They seem to take both too seriously to allow such dissociation, and they want to use each for the enrichment of the other. Of course, such a split is the prevailing convention among men in general, deriving, I suppose, from the hollowness of the work which men in general now do. But you will have recognized that as a scholar you have the exceptional opportunity of designing a way of living which will encourage the habits of good workmanship. Scholarship is a choice of how to live as well as a choice of career; whether he knows it or not, the intellectual workman forms his own self as he works toward the perfection of his craft; to realize his own potentialities, and any opportunities that come his way, he constructs a character which has as its core the qualities of the good workman. What this means is that you must learn to use your life experience in your intellectual work: continually to examine and interpret it. In this sense craftsmanship is the center of yourself and you are personally involved in every intellectual product upon which you may work. To say that you can have experience, means, for one thing, that your past plays into and affects your present, and that it defines your capacity for future, experience. As a social scientist, you have to control this rather elaborate interplay, to capture what you experience and sort it out; only in this way can you hope to use it to guide and test your reflection, and in the process shape yourself as an intellectual craftsman. But how can you do this? One answer is: you must set up a file, which is, I suppose, a sociologists way of saying: keep a journal. Many creative writers keep journals; the sociologists need for systematic reflection demands it. In such a file as I am going to describe, there is joined personal experience and professional activities, studies under way and studies planned. In this file, you, as an intellectual craftsman, will try to get together what you are doing intellectually and what you are experiencing as a person. Here you will not be afraid to use your experience and relate it directly to various work in progress. By serving as a check on repetitious work, your file also enables you to conserve your energy. It also encourages you to capture fringe-thoughts: various ideas which may be by-products of everyday life, snatches of conversation overheard on the street, or, for that matter, dreams. Once noted, these may lead to more systematic thinking, as well as lend intellectual relevance to more directed experience. You will have often noticed how carefully accomplished thinkers treat their own minds, how closely they observe their development and organize their experience. The reason they treasure their smallest experiences is that, in the course of a lifetime, modem man has so very little personal experience and yet experience is so important as a source of original intellectual work. To be able to trust yet to be skeptical of your own experience, I have come to believe, is one mark of the mature workman. This ambiguous confidence is indispensable to originality in any intellectual pursuit, and the file is one way by which you can develop and justify such confidence. By keeping an adequate file and thus developing self-reflective habits, you learn how to keep your inner world awake. Whenever you feel strongly about events or ideas you must try not to let them pass from your mind, but instead to formulate them for your files and in so doing draw out their implications, show yourself either how foolish these feelings or ideas are, or how they might be articulated into productive shape. The file also helps you build up the habit of writing. You cannot keep your hand in if you do not write something at least every week. In developing the file, you can experiment as a writer and thus, as they say, develop your powers of expression. To maintain a file is to engage in the controlled experience. One of the very worst things that happens to social scientists is that they feel the need to write of their plans on only one occasion: when they are going to ask for money for a specific piece of research or a project. It is as a request for funds that most planning is done, or at least carefully written about. However standard the practice, I think this very bad: It is bound in some degree to be salesmanship, and, given prevailing expectations, very likely to result in painstaking pretensions; the project is likely to be Presented, rounded out in some arbitrary manner long before it ought to be; it is often a contrived thing, aimed at getting the money for ulterior purposes, however valuable, as well as for the research presented. A practicing social scientist ought periodically to review the state of my problems and plans. A young man, just at the beginning of his independent work, ought to reflect on this, but he cannot be expected-and shouldnt expect himself-to get very far with it, and certainly he ought not to become rigidly committed to any one plan. About all he can do is line up his thesis, which unfortunately is often his first supposedly independent piece of work of any length. It is when you are about half-way through the time you have for work, or about one-third through, that such reviewing is most likely to be fruitful -and perhaps even of interest to others. Any working social scientist who is well on his way ought at all times to have so many plans, which is to say ideas, that the question is always, which of them am I, ought I, to work on next? And he should keep a special little file for his master agenda, which he writes and rewrites just for himself and perhaps for discussion with friends. From time to time he ought to review this very carefully and purposefully, and sometimes too, when he is relaxed. Some such procedure is one of the indispensable means by which your intellectual enterprise is kept oriented and under control. A widespread, informal interchange of such reviews of the state of my problems among working social scientists is, I suggest, the only basis for an adequate statement of the leading problems of social science. It is unlikely that in any free intellectual community there would be and certainly there ought not to be any monolithic array of problems. In such a community, were it flourishing in a vigorous way, there would be interludes of discussion among individuals about future work. Three kinds of interludes-on problems, methods, theory-ought to come out of the work of social scientists, and lead into it again; they should be shaped by work-in-progress and to some extent guide that work. It is for such interludes that a professional association finds its intellectual reason for being. And for them too your own file is needed. Under various topics in your file there are ideas, personal notes, excerpts from books, bibliographical items and outlines of projects. It is, I suppose, a matter of arbitrary habit, but I think you will find it well to sort all these items into a master file of projects, with many subdivisions. The topics, of course, change, sometimes quite frequently. For instance, as a student working toward the preliminary examination, writing a thesis, and, at the same time, doing term papers, your files will be arranged in those three areas of endeavor. But after a year or so of graduate work, you will begin to re-organize the whole file in relation to the main project of your thesis. Then as you pursue your work you will notice that no one project ever dominates it, or sets the master categories in which it is arranged. In fact, the use of the file encourages expansion of the categories which you use in your thinking. And the way in which these categories change, some being dropped and others being added-is an index of your intellectual progress and breadth. Eventually, the files will come to be arranged according to several large projects, having many sub-projects that change from year to year. All this involves the taking of notes. You will have to acquire the habit of taking a large volume of notes from any worth-while book you read-although, I have to say, you may get better work out of yourself when you read really bad books. The first step in translating experience, either of other mens writing, or of your own life, into the intellectual sphere, is to give it form. Merely to name an item of experience often invites you to explain it; the mere taking of a note from a book is often a prod to reflection. At the same time, of course, the taking of a note is a great aid in comprehending what you are reading. Your notes may turn out, as mine do, to be of two sorts: in reading certain very important books you try to grasp the structure of the writers argument, and take notes accordingly; but more frequently, and after a few years of independent work, rather than read entire books, you will very often read parts of many books from the point of view of some particular theme or topic in which you are interested and concerning which you have plans in your file. Therefore, you will take notes which do not fairly represent the books you read. You are using this particular idea, this particular fact, for the realization of your own projects. 2 But how is this file-which so far must seem to you more like a curious sort of literary journal-used in intellectual production? The maintenance of such a file is intellectual production. It is a continually growing store of facts and ideas, from the most vague to the most finished. For example, the first thing I did upon deciding on a study of the elite was to make a crude outline based on a listing of the types of people that I wished to understand. Just how and why I decided to do such a study may suggest one way in which ones life experiences feed ones intellectual work. I forget just when I became technically concerned with stratification, but I think it must have been on first reading Veblen. He had always seemed to me very loose, even vague, about his business and industrial employments, which are a kind of translation of Marx for the academic American public. At any rate, I wrote a book on labor organizations and labor leaders-a politically motivated task; then a book on the middle classes-a task primarily motivated by the desire to articulate my own experience in New York City since 1945. It was thereupon suggested by friends that I ought to round out a trilogy by writing a book on the upper classes. I think the possibility had been in my mind; I had read Balzac off and on especially during the forties, and had been much taken with his self-appointed task of covering, all the major classes and types in the society of the era he wished to make his own. I had also written a paper on The Business Elite, and had collected and arranged statistics about the careers of the topmost men in American politics since the Constitution. These two tasks were primarily inspired by seminar work in American history. In doing these several articles and books and in preparing courses in stratification, there was of course a residue of ideas and facts about the upper classes. Especially in the study of social stratification is it difficult to avoid going beyond ones immediate subject, because the reality of any one stratum is in large part its relations to the rest. Accordingly, I began to think of a book on the elite. And yet that is not really how the project arose; what really happened is (1) that the idea and the plan came out of my files, for all projects with me begin and end with them, and books are simply organized releases from the continuous work that goes into them; (2) that after a while, the whole set of problems involved came to dominate me. After making my crude outline I examined my entire file, not only those parts of it that obviously bore on my topic, but also those which seemed to have no relevance whatsoever. Imagination is often successfully invited by putting together hitherto isolated items, by finding unsuspected connections. I made new units in the file for this particular range of problems, which of course, led to new arrangements of other parts of the file. As you re-arrange a filing system, you often find that you are, as it were, loosening your imagination. Apparently this occurs by means of your attempt to combine various ideas and notes on different topics. It is a sort of logic of combination, and chance sometimes plays a curiously large part in it. In a relaxed way, you try to engage your intellectual resources, as exemplified in the file, with the new themes. In the present case, I also began to use my observations and daily experiences. I thought first of experiences I had had which bore upon elite problems, and then I went and talked with those who, I thought, might have experienced or considered the issues. As a matter of fact, I now began to alter the character of my routine so as to include in it (1) people who were among, those whom I wanted to study, (2) people in close contact with them, and (3) people interested in them usually in some professional way. I do not know the full social conditions of the best intellectual workmanship, but certainly surrounding oneself by a circle of people who will listen and talk-and at times they have to be imaginary characters-is one of them. At any rate I try to surround myself with all the relevant environment-social and intellectual-that I think might lead me into thinking well along the lines of my work. That is one meaning of my remarks above about the fusion of personal and intellectual life. Good work in social science today is not, and usually cannot be, made up of one clear-cut empirical research. It is, rather, composed of a good many studies which at key points anchor general statements about the shape and the trend of the subject. So the decision-what are these anchor points? -cannot be made until existing materials are re-worked and general hypothetical statements constructed. Now, among existing materials, I found in the files three types relevant to my study of the elite: several theories having to do with the topic; materials already worked up by others as evidence for those theories; and materials already gathered and in various stages of accessible centralization, but not yet made theoretically relevant. Only after completing a first draft of a theory with the aid of such existing materials as these can I efficiently locate my own pivotal assertions and hunches and design researches to test them-and maybe I will not have to, although of course I know I will later have to shuttle back and forth between existing materials and my own research. Any final statement must not only cover the data so far as the data are available and known to me, but must also in some way, positively or negatively, take into, account the available theories. Sometimes this taking into account of an idea is easily done by a simple confrontation of the idea with overturning or supporting fact; sometimes a detailed analysis or qualification is needed. Sometimes I can arrange the available theories systematically as a range of choices, and so allow their range to organize the problem itself. (1) But sometimes I allow such theories to come up only in my own arrangement, in quite various contexts. At any rate, in the book on the elite I had to take into account the work of such men as Mosca, Schumpeter, Veblen, Marx, Lasswell, Michel, Weber, and Pareto. In looking over some of the notes on these writers, I find that they offer three types of statement: (a) from some, you learn directly by restating systematically what the man says on given points or as a whole; (b) some you accept or refute, giving reasons and arguments; (c) others you use as a source of suggestions for your own elaborations and projects. This involves grasping a point and then asking: How can I put this into testable shape, and how can I test it? How can I use this as a center from which to elaborate-as a perspective from which descriptive details emerge as relevant? It is in this handling of existing ideas, of course, that you feel yourself in continuity with previous work. Here are two excerpts from preliminary notes on Mosca, which may illustrate what I have been trying to describe: In addition to his historical anecdotes, Mosca backs up his thesis with this assertion: Its the power of organization that enables the minority always to rule. There are organized minorities and they run things and men. There are unorganized majorities and they are run. (2) But: why not also consider (1) the organized minority, (2) the organized majority, (3) the unorganized minority, (4) the unorganized majority. This is worth full-scale exploration. The first thing that has to be straightened out: just what is the meaning of organized? I think Mosca means: capable of more or less continuous and co-ordinated policies and actions. If so, his thesis is right by definition. He would also say, I believe, that an organized majority is impossible because all it would amount to is that new leaders, new elites, would be on top of these majority organizations, and he is quite ready to pick up these leaders in his The Ruling Class. He calls them directing minorities, all of which is pretty flimsy stuff alongside his big statement. One thing that occurs to me (1 think it is the core of the problems of definition that Mosca presents to us) is this: from the nineteenth to the twentieth century, we have witnessed a shift from a society organized as 1 and 4 to a society established more in terms of 3 and 2. We have moved from an elite state to an organization state, in which the elite is no longer so organized nor so unilaterally powerful, and the mass is more organized and more powerful. Some power has been made in the streets, and around it the whole social structures and their elites have pivoted. And what section of the ruling class is more organized than the farm bloc? Thats not a rhetorical question: I can answer it either way at this time; its a matter of degree. All I want now is to get it out in the open. Mosca makes one point that seems to me excellent and worth elaborating further: There is often in the ruling class, according to him, a top clique and there is this second and larger stratum, with which (a) the top is in continuous and immediate contact, and with which (b) it shares ideas and sentiments and hence, he believes, policies. (page 430) Cheek and see if anywhere else in the book, he makes other points of connection. Is the clique recruited largely from the second level? Is the top, in some way, responsible for, or at least sensitive to, this second stratum? Now forget Mosca: in another vocabulary, we have, (a) the elite, by which we here mean that top clique, (b) those who count, and (c) all the others. Membership in the second and third, in this scheme, is defined by the first, and the second may be quite varied in its size and composition and relations with the first and the third. (What, by the way, is the range of variations of the relations of (b) to (a) and to (c)? Examine Mosca for hints and further extend this by considering it systematically. ) This scheme may enable me more neatly to take into account the different elites, which are elites according to the several dimensions of stratification. Also, of course, to pick up in a neat and meaningful way the Paretian distinction of governing and non-governing elites in a way less formal than Pareto. Certainly many top-status people would at least be in the second. So would the big rich. The Clique or The Elite would refer to power, or to authority, as the case may be. The elite in this vocabulary would always mean the power elite. The other top people would be the upper classes or the upper circles. So in a way, maybe, we can use this in connection with two major problems: the structure of the elite; and the conceptual-later perhaps, the substantive-relations of stratification and elite theories. (Work this out. ) From the standpoint of power, it is easier to pick out those who count than those who rule. When we try to do the first we select the top levels as a sort of loose aggregate and we are guided by position. But when we attempt the second, we must indicate in clear detail how they wield power and just how they are related to the social instrumentalities through which power is exercised. Also we deal more with persons than positions, or at least have to take persons into account. Now power in the United States involves more than one elite. How can we judge the relative positions of these several elites? Depends upon the issue and decisions being made. One elite sees another as among those who count. There is this mutual recognition among the elite, that other elites count; in one way or another they are important people to one another. Project: select 3 or 4 key decisions of last decade-to drop the atom, to cut or raise steel production, the C. M. strike of 45-and trace in detail the personnel involved in each of them. Might use decisions and decision-making as interview pegs when you go out for intensives. 3 There comes a time in the course of your work when you are through with other books. Whatever you want from them is down in your notes and abstracts; and on the margins of these notes, as well as in a separate file, are ideas for empirical studies. Now I do not like to do empirical work if I can possibly avoid it. If one has no staff it is a great deal of trouble; if one does employ a staff, then the staff is often even more trouble. In the intellectual condition of the social sciences today, there is so much to do by way of initial structuring (let the word stand for the kind of work I am describing) that much empirical research is bound to be thin and uninteresting. Much of it, in fact, is a formal exercise for beginning students, and sometimes a useful pursuit for those who are not able to handle the more difficult substantive problems of social science. There is no more virtue in empirical inquiry as such than in reading as such. The purpose of empirical inquiry is to settle disagreements and doubts about facts, and thus to make arguments more fruitful by basing all sides more substantively. Facts discipline reason; but reason is the advance guard in any field of learning. Although you will never be able to get the money with which to do many of the empirical studies you design, it is necessary that you continue designing them. For once you lay out an empirical study, even if you do not follow it through, it leads you to a new search for data, which often turn out to have unsuspected relevance to your problems. Just as it is foolish to design a field study if the answer can be found in a library, it is foolish to think you have exhausted the books before you have translated them into appropriate empirical studies, which merely means into questions of fact. Empirical projects necessary to my kind of work must promise, first, to have relevance for the first draft, of which I wrote above; they have to confirm it in its original form or they have to cause its modification. Or to put it more pretentiously, they must have implications for theoretical constructions. Second, the projects must be efficient and neat and, if possible, ingenious. By this I mean that they must promise to yield a great deal of material in proportion to the time and effort they involve. But how is this to be done? The most economical way to state a problem is in such a way as to solve as much of it as possible by reasoning alone. By reasoning we try (a) to isolate each question of fact that remains; (b) to ask these questions of fact in such ways that the answers promise to help us solve further problems by further reasoning. (3) To take hold of problems in this way, you have to pay attention to four stages; but it is usually best to go through all four many times rather than to get stuck in any one of them too long. The steps are: (1) the elements and definitions that, from your general awareness of the topic, issue, or area of concern, you think you are going to have to take into account; (2) the logical relations between these definitions and elements; building these little preliminary models, by the way, affords the best chance for the play of the sociological imagination; (3) the elimination of false views due to omissions of needed elements, improper or unclear definitions of terms, or undue emphasis on some part of the range and its logical extensions; (4) statement and re-statement of the questions of fact that remain. The third step, by the way, is a very necessary but often neglected part of any adequate statement of a problem. The popular awareness of the problem-the problem as an issue and as a trouble-must be carefully taken into account: that is part of the problem. Scholarly statements, of course, must be carefully examined and either used up in the re-statement being made, or thrown out. Before deciding upon the empirical studies necessary for the job at hand, I began to sketch a larger design within which various small-scale studies began to arise. Again, I excerpt from the files: I am not yet in a position to study the upper circles as a whole in a systematic and empirical way. So what I do is set forth some definitions and procedures that form a sort of ideal design for such a study. I can then attempt, first, to gather existing materials that approximate this design; second, to think of convenient ways of gathering materials, given the existing indices, that satisfy it at crucial points; and third, as I proceed, to make more specific the full-scale, empirical researches that would in the end be necessary. The upper circles must, of course, be defined systematically in terms of specific variables. Formally-and this is more or less Paretos way they are the people who have the most of whatever is available of any given value or set of values. So I have to make two decisions: What variables shall I take as the criteria, and what do I mean by the most? After Ive decided on my variables, I must construct the best indices I can, if possible quantifiable indices, in order to distribute the population in terms of them; only then can I begin to decide what I mean by the most. For this should, in part, be left for determination by empirical inspection of the various distributions, and their overlaps. My key variables should, at first, be general enough to give me some latitude in the choice of indices, yet specific enough to invite the search for empirical indices. As I go along, Ill have to shuttle between conceptions and indices, guided by the desire not to lose intended meanings and yet to be quite specific about them. Here are the four Weberian variables with which I will begin: I. Class refers to sources and amounts of income. So Ill need property distributions and income distributions. The ideal material here (which is very scarce, and unfortunately dated) is a cross-tabulation of source and amount of annual income. Thus, we know that X per cent of the population received during 1936 Y millions or over, and that Z per cent of all this money was from property, W per cent from entrepreneurial withdrawal, Q per cent from wages and salaries. Along this class dimension, I can define the upper circles-those who have the most-either as those who receive given amounts of income during a given time-or, as those who make up the upper two per cent of the income pyramid. Look into treasury records and lists of big taxpayers. See if TNEC tables on source and amount of income can be brought up to date. II. Status refers to the amounts of deference received. For this, there are no simple or quantifiable indices. Existing indices require personal interviews for their application, are limited so far to local community studies, and are mostly no good anyway. There is the further problem that, unlike class, status involves social relations: at least one to receive and one to bestow the deference. It is easy to confuse publicity with deference-or rather, we do not yet know whether or not volume of publicity should be used as an index to status position, although it is the most easily available (For example: On one or two successive days in mid-March 1952, the following categories of people were mentioned by name in the New York Times-or on selected pages-work this out) III. Power refers to the realization of ones will even if others resist. Like status, this has not been well indexed. I dont think I can keep it a single dimension, but will have to talk (a) of formal authority defined by rights and powers of positions in various institutions, especially military, political, and economic. And (b) powers known informally to be exercised but not formally instituted-pressure group leaders, propagandists with extensive media at their disposal, and so on. IV. Occupation refers to activities that are paid for. Here, again, I must choose just which feature of occupation I should seize upon. (a) If I use the average incomes of various occupations, to rank them, I am of course using occupation as an index, and as the basis of, class. In like manner (b) if I use the status or the power typically attached to different occupations, then I am using occupations as indices, and bases, of power and skill or talent. But this is by no means an easy way to classify people. Skill-no more than status-is not a homogeneous something of which there is more or less. Attempts to treat it as such have usually been put in terms of the length of time required to acquire various skills, and maybe that will have to do, although I hope I can think of something better. Those are the types of problems I will have to solve in order to define analytically and empirically the upper circles, in terms of these four key variables. For purposes of design, assume I have solved them to my satisfaction, and that I have distributed the population in terms of each of them. I would then have four sets of people: those at the top in class, status, power, and skill. Suppose further, that I had singled out the top two per cent of each distribution, as an upper circle. I then confront this empirically answerable question: How much, if any, overlap is there among each of these four distributions? One range of possibilities can be located within this simple chart: (+ = top two per cent; = lower 98 per cent). CLASS ___________________________________________ + __ STATUS STATUS ____________________________________________________________ _____________ + __ + __ + Skill + 1 2 3 4 Power __ 5 6 8 8 Skill + 9 10 11 12 __ 13 14 15 16 __________________ _______________________________________________________ This diagram, if I had the materials to fill it, would contain major data and many important problems for a study of the upper circles. It would provide keys to many definitional and substantive questions. I dont have the data, and I shant be able to get it-which makes it all the more important that I speculate about it, for in the course of such reflection, if it is guided by the desire to approximate the empirical requirements.

War Promotes Nation Building :: Papers

War Promotes Nation Building War can promote nation building in various aspects. Politically, war can modernize the political system of a country; economically, war can encourage a huge number of industrial developments of a country; morally, war can destroy the evil ideas of the world. For the propose of this assignment, the following definition of nation building is provided: Nation building is the development or modernization of a country in political, economical, and/or social aspect(s). First of all, war can modernize the political system of a country. When a country was defeated in a territory, the regime would be replaced by another regime with a different form of government, and a different kind of political system. For instance, after the World War II (WW II), the Germany had turned from a dictatorship to a democracy. Japan had also become a democracy, while the mainland China became a communist. On the other hand, attack by foreigners can promote nationalism. Taking the period of the French Revolution as an example, while Napoleon built up a large army in Europe and conquered other countries, the Europeans was then turned to nationalism. The Europeans began to strengthen their countries, both in political and economical structure. These encouraged growth in their countries. China is another example, during the WWII, when China conquered by foreigners, the Chinese came together and fought against the invaders. Since then, the Chinese had built up a more powerful and modernized country. Since conflicts between nations make native to build up, modernize and improve their nations, including the political system. As a result, war promotes nation building. Economically, war can encourage the economic development of a nation. It is because war requires a huge number of government expenses for the army. For example, the wages for soldiers, the expenses for modernize the equipment and strengthen the army. These force the monarch or government of the nation to increase the income of the government first.

The Bluest Esyes

?Latishia Taylor 5th Hour AP English The House, the blue eyes, the marigolds†¦. Oh My! In the novel The Bluest Eye, there were a lot of roles of symbolism. Symbolism is the practice of representing things by means of symbols or of attributing symbolic meanings or significance to objects, events, or relationships. The title by itself starts off one of the many symbols in the novel. Seeing the novel uses the singular form of the word â€Å"eye† to express many of the characters’ sad isolation. The symbols in this novel symbolize different meanings for each character. Some of the symbols are the bluest eyes, the house, the marigolds. The novels begins with a prologue, beginning with a sentence from a Dick-and-Jane narrative: â€Å"Here is the house(3). † The homes in this novel do not only indicate the social economic status , but they also symbolize the emotional situations and values of the characters who inhabit them. For instance the Breedlove’s storefront apartments despicable and aged, suffering from Mrs. Breedlove’s preference for her employer’s home over her own. This symbolizes the misery of the Breedlove family. Their home lacks positive symbols such as the couch being thought of as a comfort provider or the loving that has been conducted upon it, a bed being defined by someone giving birth in it. Just as the family has an ironic name; they do the total opposite of their name; the few household objects that they do possess: a ripped couch, a cold stove, are symbols of suffering and degradation rather than of a home. The Breedlove’s apartment not only is considered ugly on their part but the community recognizes this also. The ugliness of the abandoned storefront and its defiance to blend in with the other buildings that surround it. This symbolizes the hideousness of the Breedlove’s story; a story not only about the ugliness they create but also about the ugliness brought out against them. Just as the storefront has now been abandoned, they have also been abandoned by the world around them. Unlike the Breedlove’s â€Å"home†; the MacTeer’s is drafty and dark, but it is carefully tended by Mrs. MacTeer and. According to Claudia it is also filled with love, symbolizing their family’s comparative cohesion. There is a young girl in this novel that goes a lot of complications. Her name is Pecola and she is the daughter of Mr. nd Mrs. Breedlove. Where she has one wish and that is to have the bluest eyes. When her parents get into arguments she lies in bed imaging that all her body parts are dissolving except for her eyes. †Please,God,† she whispered in the palm of her hand. â€Å"Please make me dissappear(45). † She hates her ugliness and for a long time she hoped and prayed for blue eyes, which will make her beautiful and change all the evil in her life to good. To Pecola, the blue eyes symbolize the beauty and happiness that she associates with the white middle-class world. They also symbolize her own blindness, for she gains blue eyes only at the cost of her sanity. Pecola decides that if she had beautiful eyes, her life would magically right itself. She wants blue eyes for two reasons; so that she can change what she sees, and so that she can change how others see her. For Pecola, these reasons are interchangeable because she believes that how people see her; as ugly, creates what she see; hurtful behavior. At the end of the novel Pecola goes mad, believing that she has gotten the blue eyes that she has been wishing for. She also imagines up a n imaginary friend. Pecola can not stop admiring her eyes she claims that now she can even look at the sun without blinking. Rather than granting Pecola insight into the world around her and providing a compensating connection with other people, these eyes are a form of blindness. Pecola can no longer accurately perceive the outside world, and she has become more invisible to others. He new friendship is only imagined and does not protect her from old suffering and insecurity. Even though she granted her wish of blue eyes, she still has scars deep down on the inside that won’t seem to just disappear. During the novel Pecola is also raped and impregnated by her father. The community thought she should be taken out of school and hoping that the baby doent's not live. â€Å"I thought about the baby that everybody wanted dead(190). † When Claudia and Frieda heard about Pecola being impregnated by her father that felt the need to help her. At first they just thought to pray and ask God to let the baby live, but then they thought that wasn’t enough so they decided to give up the bicycle they wanted, bury the money and plant the marigolds seeds. we’ll bury the money over by her house so we can’t go back and dig it up, and we’ll plant the seeds out back of our house so we can watch over them. And when they come up, we’ll know everything is all right. All right(192)? † To Claudia an Frieda, they associated the marigolds with the safety and well-being of Pecola’s baby. Their ceremonial offering of money and the remaining unsold marigol ds seeds represent an honest sacrifice on their part. They believed that if the marigolds they had planted grew, then Pecola’s baby would be all right. To Claudia’ s and Frieda’s disliking the flowers did not bloom and Pecola’s baby died when it was prematurely born. From there forth on, they avoided Pecola Breedlove. In a more general sense, marigolds represent the constant renewal of nature. In Pecola’s case, this cycle of renewal is perverted by her father’s rape of her. This novel consisted of a lot of symbolism. Most of which all were involved with Pecola. In some shape, way, or form Pecola was affected by all the symbols in the novel. Some good effects, some bad effects, some had a little bit of the both effects.