A study on the various personality type tests

A study on the various personality type tests It is only fairly recently that personality tests have become a common practice by companies looking to employ people. These personality tests enable organizations to match people to specific jobs and tasks. The tests also help to eliminate false information given in the interview. For example: A person being interviewed is asked how well they can work as part of a group. Naturally the person will say they like working as part of a group. A personality test will make it more difficult for the person to lie about things like that. History The basic principles or foundation of the modern personality type test can be traced back to the ancient Greeks. The ancient Greeks identified four personality traits known as the four temperaments or four humours. These four types are cheerful, sombre, enthusiastic, and calm. These four temperaments provided Carl Jung with the inspiration to develop his own physiological theory. Carl Jungs physiological theory provided the foundation for Myers Briggs and David Keirsey to build their assessment systems. These two systems are considered the modern day personality tests. Carl Jungs functional types Carl Jung categorised psychic energy into two types. The types are introverted and extroverted. These two categories are used extensively in the world today. They are two of the main types of personalities identified and used by the Myers Briggs personality test. Jung did not just leave it at this. He then went on to create four psychological types, these being: Thinking, Feeling, Sensation and Intuition. Jung also stated that things were either rational or irrational. Thinking and Feeling he considered to be rational. Sensation and Intuition he classified as irrational. Though his theories make sense the application of these theories for test purposes was difficult and tedious. Myers Briggs type indicator This type indicator is probably the most commonly used personality type test. It is based on Carl Jungs physiological theory. It is in the form of a questionnaire with the purpose of measuring psychological preferences with regard to how people make decisions and how they perceive the world around them (Myers-Briggs Type Indicator). Myers Briggs converts Carl Jungs theory into a methodology and system that can be used to understand and assess personalities. The Myers Briggs model can be used for: Gaining an understanding of and developing oneself To develop and understand other people Gain insight as to what motivates other people Assess other peoples strengths and weaknesses Developing and working in teams Agreeing on and allocation of tasks and responsibilities The Myers Briggs test is composed of four pairs of personality types. These types are: Extrovert vs. Introvert (EI), Sensing vs. Intuition (SN), Thinking vs. Feeling (TF), and Judgers vs. Perceivers (JP). Once an individual takes the test he/she will fall into one of sixteen possible personality groups. The sixteen personality groups are all the possible combinations of the four pairs of personality types. The sixteen personality groups fall into four distinct groups. These groups are: Internal Sensual Group, External Sensual Group, Internal Intuition Group, and External Intuition Group. This can be seen in the table below taken from Kersey.com (Keirsey Temperament Website). Internal Sensual Group External Sensual Group Internal Intuition Group External Intuition Group ISTJ ESTJ INTJ ENTJ ISFJ ESFJ INFJ ENFJ ISTP ESTP INTP ENTP ISFP ESFP INFP ENFP The advantage of this test is that if done honestly it can accurately reflect the individuals personality. This would enable managers to assemble a team of people with different personalities and each personality suited for the job required. The disadvantage is that this test may not necessarily be accurate as the individual could choose an option that they would most likely perform in their current state of mind. This could mean that the result could change if they were to take the test again under different circumstances. This would mean that their true personality would not be identified as the result is subject to the persons current mood and chain of thought. David Keirseys Personality Types Another personality type test is that of David Keirsey. Known as the Keirsey Temperament Sorter it helps people to better understand others as well as themselves. This test has been developed from the four temperaments and from Carl Jungs theories. Like the Myers Briggs test Keirsey categorises human personality into sixteen types and each type belongs to one of four categories. The four categories are: Artisans these are people who say what is and they do what will work. Guardians these people say what is and do what is right. Rationalists these are people who say what is possible and do what will work. Idealist these are people who will say what is possible and do what is right. Keirsey places the sixteen personality types into the four categories as seen in the table below taken from Keirsey.com (Keirsey Temperament Website). Artisan Guardian Rationalist Idealist Promoter (ESTP) Supervisor (ESTJ) Fieldmarshall (ENTJ) Teacher (ENFJ) Crafter (ISTP) Inspector (ISTJ) Mastermind (INTJ) Counsellor (INFJ) Performer (ESFP) Provider (ESFJ) Inventor (ENTP) Champion (ENFP) Composer (ISFP) Protector (ISFJ) Architect (INTP) Healer (INFP) Note: The letters in brackets are the equivalent Myers Briggs personality types. Like the Myers Briggs test Keirseys test is subject to the individuals frame of mind when taking the test and can only marginally determine the individuals temperament and personality. Another con is that if the person applying for the job knows the desired personality he/she can determine the outcome of the test. There are books on how to answer the test to achieve the desired personality for the job. Eysencks Personality Inventory Hans Eysenck brings a new dimension with the addition of emotional stability. Eysenck used two scales to measure personality, these being as follows: Introversion and Extroversion Stability and Instability With these two scales Eysenck created four types of personalities: Unstable introvert means that the person can be moody, anxious and unsociable Unstable extrovert this means that the person is aggressive, impulsive and changeable Stable introvert means that the person tends to be even-tempered, calm, reliable and controlled Stable extrovert this category means that the person is outgoing, lively, easy-going and is a good leader It is the dimensions of stable and unstable that sets Eysenck apart from systems of Myer Briggs and Keirsey. This helps to add a new view on the four temperaments. It also enhances the perspective of Jungs psychological types and adds to the Myers Briggs and Keirsey tests. Katherine Benzigers brain theory type Benziger has a different approach as compared to the likes of Myers Briggs and Keirsey. She places great importance on the fact that one should not try and falsify ones personality type. Benziger reckons that most people falsify their type so as to get the job for which they are applying. This could have an impact on their performance as they are not really the right people for the job. Like with the other tests she drew inspiration from Carl Jungs work. Her theory is that personality can be mapped in four quadrants of the brain: The Rear Left part is for processing and routines. The rear Right is associated with empathy and intuition. The Front Left part is associated with logic. The Front Right is associated with creativity and vision These quadrants can be linked to Jungs functional types. Benziger Jung Front Left Thinking Rear Right Feeling Rear Left Sensing Front Right Intuition The advantage of Benzigers test is that it places a strong emphasis on not falsifying personality type. There is even a section in the assessment that assesses the extent to which the person is falsifying their type. This can help in determining those who are honest and those who are not. This helps a manager select the best possible candidates for a position or a team. DISC This test determines four behavioural aspects by testing a persons preferences when it comes to word associations. The four dimensions of DISC are: Dominance Influence Steadiness Conscientiousness Dominance and Influence represent extrovert. Steadiness and Conscientiousness represent introvert. Some of the benefits of the DISC profile are: Being able to understand behavioural challenges and strengths in others as well as yourself. Gain an appreciation for the strengths and differences in others Identify tools to aid in conflict resolution Decrease conflict within the team and improve teamwork Gain an awareness of how to deal with diverse people Understand client behaviour resulting in increased sales Enhance customer satisfaction By identifying communication styles you can improve communication skills These benefits can help place the right people in management. Being able to motivate and understand people is a very good trait to have as a manager. The problem is that like most other assessments DISC is not one hundred percent accurate and therefore it does not display a reliable measurement. The Big 5 personality test This test measures your intensity to deal with change, people, work, and depression situations. The five factors are: Agreeableness or Accommodation this is how you deal with people. The higher the degree the more agreeable or courteous you are. The lower the degree the more unpleasant and aggressive you are. Openness to change the higher the degree the more open to sudden changes you are. A low degree means that you oppose change with vigour. Extroversion A high degree represents an extrovert while a low score represents an introvert Conscientiousness A high degree here means that you are focused and organized when it comes to work. On the other hand a low score means that you are lazy and dislike lots of work. Neuroticism This is your ability to handle depression. The higher the degree the more stability you have when pitted against depression. A low score means that you take a long time to recover from the shock caused by depression. This type of test is considered better than the Myers Briggs and DISC test. This is because this test does not focus on types or temperaments. Instead it tries to measure your ability to handle five factors. Conclusion There are many personality tests out there all of which can be used to gain insight into others and ourselves. Companies may use personality type tests to gain an idea as to how people think and then based on the outcome of the test build the best possible team. Managers can also use these tests to help them place the right people in the right position. Though these are great positives the downside is that the tests are not 100% accurate and some people know how to answer the test as to get the desired outcome. This means that you may get the wrong person for the job due to them being good liars.

King Tutankhamun and His Treasures Essay -- Essays Papers

King Tutankhamun and His Treasures The ancient Egyptians were noted for many things, one of which would have been their artwork. Egyptians used many medians in their artwork that enhanced the details and beauty of every piece of art. Their artwork is fascinating and mysterious, which pulls in the viewer into wanting to learn more. One of the most important and unique Egyptian artworks belongs to King Tutankhamun, a young pharaoh of Egypt. A brief history of the discovery of King Tut’s tomb and the importance and beauty of certain pieces found in his tomb, will be discussed in this essay. King Tutankhamun’s tomb was the prize that archaeologist Howard Carter sought out for in the Valley of the Kings. Carter was running out of time and also the Earl of Carnarvon’s patience. Disappointed for years by Carter’s discoveries, Carnarvon told Carter to not apply anymore for the renewal of his excavating concession. Only by his pleading and offers to pay the cost himself if nothing were found convinced Carnarvon to add one more excavating season. At the time, thirty-three tombs had been discovered, and thieves who had pillaged and destroyed them had already broken into all. Because of this, it was believed that the Valley burial ground held no more secrets. Carter disagreed and was more determined than ever to find the tomb. Eventually, three pieces of evidence discovered by Theodore M. Davis, and examined by H. E. Winlock, led Carter to believe that King Tut’s tomb was yet to be found. The three artifacts were a faience cup bearing the pharaoh’s name, a small, mud-filled pit tomb containing pictures and inscriptions of King Tut and his wife, and the third was a collection of pottery jars, each sealed with King Tut’s seal. Carter had a hypothesis that King Tut’s tomb may be found in a small area in the Valley where archeologists had not yet dug into. It was a very strenuous job, considering the floor of the Valley was covered with tons of rock and sand, and all they had was manual labor. Soon enough though, a staircase was discovered followed by a door with its seals still intact. In 1922, Carter had indeed discovered the tomb of King Tutankhamun! King Tut became pharaoh at the age of nine and ruled for nine years until his death at eighteen. The cause of his death is unknown. The period he ruled was that of economic prosperity and some re... ...s the god Shu, holding the curved piece, which was to represent him saving the world from chaos by holding up the sky. A lion was also carved on the base on the left and right side of Shu. The base represented the earth and the lions symbolized the mountains on the western and eastern horizons. This piece has no close parallel in Egyptian art. The artwork described above was only a tiny portion of what was discovered in King Tutankhamun’s tomb. It was very interesting to see the ancient artifacts and know the purpose that each one served—jars holding organs and concoctions, musical instruments, and statues that served as protection are just a few examples of what the Egyptians used in their tombs. Their art represents how loyal and elegant the Egyptian culture was. Even though King Tutankhamun was not one of the most famous pharaohs, his treasures will live on and educate people into knowing more about him and the Egyptians. Bibliography Buckley, Tom, and Wente F., Edward. Treasures of Tutankhamun. Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1976. â€Å"Tutankhamen.† Encarta, 1998 ed. CD-ROM. Microsoft, 1998. National Geographic Society. Ancient Egypt. Washington D.C., 1978.

Into the Wild: The Tragedy and Triumph of Chris Mccandless Essay

It is like a tag on a shirt that keeps bothering your tender skin, it is the reason why you rip the tag off and make your own choices while walking into the unknown land of the wilderness, striving for the adventure that has dire consequences if executed improperly. Walking the unknown land of Hades abyss might have taken the sensitive life of one man, but it was done in a blaze of glory with no regrets. This man of course is Christopher McCandless in the book, Into the Wild by Jon Krakauer, which is based on a true story. In the book, McCandless strives for the cold Alaskan journey into the wild to satisfy his final thirst for the wilderness but tragedy strikes and it ends by him losing the most valuable thing to him, his life. Chris McCandless had exceptional reasons for vacating the life he lived which are also justified; he was also was not foolish for leaving that life and the outcome of his journey was a triumph and not a tragedy. McCandless had exceptional reasons for leaving home and taking on the life of a homeless person living in the wild. McCandless wanted to experience this type of individuality and to experience the life that Henry David Thoreau once lived, however there where more reasons on why he ultimately left home and decided to live the life of a free man. In the book, McKinney explains that Chris was convinced that humans had grown into inferior people and that it was his goal to return to the natural state of being a human (74). He also continued to say that Chris was experiencing what ancient civilizations experienced and that by the end of his lifestyle he had incorporated elements of Neolithic (74). This reveals his intensions from the beginning of his state of being an ultimately the beginning of his un... ... the milky crisp mountains of Alaska, it was everything he imagined it to be. However his burgeoning haplessness ended in the tragedy of his death. Though he abated in a world of reverie, he found enough energy to say his impeccable goodbyes to his loved ones and family. McCandless like a judge in the Supreme Court of the United States was justified in the absence of attending his life with his family and was not a fool for doing so. Though his incredible journey ended in demise, it was a feat for him and all of those who loved him. To quote Henry David Thoreau , â€Å"I learned this, at least, by my experiment: that if one advances confidently in the direction of his dreams, and endeavors to live the life which he has imagined, he will meet with a success unexpected in common hours.† Works Cited Krakauer, Jon. Into the Wild. United States. Villard Books, 1996. Print Into the Wild: The Tragedy and Triumph of Chris Mccandless Essay It is like a tag on a shirt that keeps bothering your tender skin, it is the reason why you rip the tag off and make your own choices while walking into the unknown land of the wilderness, striving for the adventure that has dire consequences if executed improperly. Walking the unknown land of Hades abyss might have taken the sensitive life of one man, but it was done in a blaze of glory with no regrets. This man of course is Christopher McCandless in the book, Into the Wild by Jon Krakauer, which is based on a true story. In the book, McCandless strives for the cold Alaskan journey into the wild to satisfy his final thirst for the wilderness but tragedy strikes and it ends by him losing the most valuable thing to him, his life. Chris McCandless had exceptional reasons for vacating the life he lived which are also justified; he was also was not foolish for leaving that life and the outcome of his journey was a triumph and not a tragedy. McCandless had exceptional reasons for leaving home and taking on the life of a homeless person living in the wild. McCandless wanted to experience this type of individuality and to experience the life that Henry David Thoreau once lived, however there where more reasons on why he ultimately left home and decided to live the life of a free man. In the book, McKinney explains that Chris was convinced that humans had grown into inferior people and that it was his goal to return to the natural state of being a human (74). He also continued to say that Chris was experiencing what ancient civilizations experienced and that by the end of his lifestyle he had incorporated elements of Neolithic (74). This reveals his intensions from the beginning of his state of being an ultimately the beginning of his un... ... the milky crisp mountains of Alaska, it was everything he imagined it to be. However his burgeoning haplessness ended in the tragedy of his death. Though he abated in a world of reverie, he found enough energy to say his impeccable goodbyes to his loved ones and family. McCandless like a judge in the Supreme Court of the United States was justified in the absence of attending his life with his family and was not a fool for doing so. Though his incredible journey ended in demise, it was a feat for him and all of those who loved him. To quote Henry David Thoreau , â€Å"I learned this, at least, by my experiment: that if one advances confidently in the direction of his dreams, and endeavors to live the life which he has imagined, he will meet with a success unexpected in common hours.† Works Cited Krakauer, Jon. Into the Wild. United States. Villard Books, 1996. Print

I Must Help Others :: Medicine College Admissions Essays

I Must Help Others    I grew up amidst the poverty and deprivation of the Third World, and for the majority of the twenty years that I lived in Jamaica, I lived with a sense of hopelessness. I lived with my mother, one brother, and two sisters in a one-bedroom house without any roof. The day before my final exams, during my first year in high school, we were evicted from the house. I never got another chance to take my exams, and I had to spend the next school year repeating the same classes.    At the age of thirteen, I dropped out of school for about nine months because we were without any resources. During that time out of school I came to realize the value of education. I realized that I could improve the quality of my life and that of the people around me with an education.    While in high school my decision to become a doctor became real. As a member of the Hospital Club I visited the Kingston Public Hospital and saw that there were people there that had been waiting for days to see a doctor because they could not afford to go elsewhere. I had to do something to help.    As I pause to think of the forces that have motivated and influenced me, I remember the harsh experiences that I have endured, and the obstacles I have overcome. But, I would rather focus on the positive experiences that I have had. In doing so, I recall the many times that I was called upon by the headmistress of my high school to teach a mathematics class when the teacher was out ill, including the class in which I was enrolled. I remember the many times that I was voted in as class monitor and I also recall during my senior year being one of the fifteen prefects for the student body, which consisted of approximately 1500 girls. These experiences gave me a sense of pride, dignity, and the will to carry on.    I graduated from high school in 1985, and during that summer I worked as a clerk at the Police Forensic Laboratory. My interest in Physics and Biology blossomed as I watched the ballistics and other experiments being performed in this Laboratory. These were classes that I had never taken before.

In the arms of sleep

It happened again last night. Just like before. It began slowly, with little things. Then it got worse. Much worse. I suppose this is your way of punishing me. If it is, it's working. If it's not when I'm awake, it's when I'm asleep. Mad isn't it? That's what most people think anyway. Sometimes I think I'm going mad. Am I? No. I can't be. It's so real. I can feel it. It is more than a nightmare. Trapped. Trapped under the hideous black carpet that chokes the sky. Darkness complete. Shadows begin to move, writhing, with an eerie shrill sound of the sucking of the air. Unmoving, I watch. Without breathing. Without thinking. The wind pounds against my face like a thundering waterfall. My breath illuminates the sky in a vivid cloud of white smoke. A trail of ivy cradles gravestones like newborn babies. An ominous feeling of dread seeps through my bones. I am in a churchyard. This is no ordinary churchyard. This is where it happened. He was standing over there. I remember now. Right next to that cross. I shouldn't have done it should I? But I had no choice. There was no way out at the time. I can feel him now. Watching me like a hawk. His hot breath creeping up my neck. Hark! What was that? Did you hear it? There it is again. I turn my head slowly to locate the sound. It's coming from the church. The sound is distant and musical – almost menacing. The organ! It plays on like an instrument of torture. I hold my breath. It stops. One . . . two . . . three. There it is again. Calling me. Calling me so softly at first; so softly it could be the blood rushing to my ears. I can hear the words. Katherine . . . Katherine. Come and find me. You know you want to. I'm walking. Walking. My feet have a mind of their own. Uncontrollable. Eyes glued in front of me. I feel like a ventriloquist's dummy. The church door lies in front of me, like the gateway to hell. My hand trembles violently as I push the heavy iron handle forward. Then the door slams behind me with a metallic slice, like a falling guillotine. Silence. Nothing can be heard except the soft pit-pat of rain. The stillness is worse than noise. I know he's in here. I can feel his eyes – watching me. Stalking me. I can smell him. The smell of decay and dried blood wafts up my nose like rotten eggs. I feel sick. A thin hot trail of sweat runs down my temple. I need to get out of here. I need to get out of here now! But where is the door? It was behind me. That noise. There it is again. That faint tune. Sheer black terror is sweeping though me, every hair on my body erected. It is dark. So dark. Too dark. My entire body goes cold with terror. Something is watching me. Something is hunched over the organ. Something is there. No. It can't be. Can it? Just one yard away from me. On my feet, skin crawling and body washed with adrenaline. He plays on. Back turned, but I know he is aware of my presence. My neck prickles as I edge away. The music stops. I walk backwards. Away. Going nowhere. My eyes afraid too – open painfully wide, then narrow – struggling to focus. My eyes close in the terrifying reality of it, lips mouthing frantic prayers, teeth clenched. I dare not look upon his face. I can smell his breath; making me feel nauseated. Heart banging like a drum. I can't stand much more of this. I've got to get out of here. I must open my eyes. I must go. He breathes hard, and a raging movement disturbs his limbs. His yellow skin has sunk into his body, showing the crevices of his bones. His hair, of a lustrous black, reminds me of a beetle. These features only form a more revolting contrast of his eyes. They glow in their own light, like fire fox. They are cold, ravenous. So different. Every shred of decency, kindness, forgiveness and passion, is gone. Replaced by the unmistakable look of a predator. His jaw opens, saliva dripping down his chin. He breaks into a fiendish grin. He cackles loudly, echoing across the hollow room. Stop! Make him stop. Make it go away. Make him disappear. I never could've imagined . . .never dreamed of such a foul creature. The devil of devils. I've never looked him directly in the face before. His gaze is hypnotic, mesmerizing. He lifts his arm up, his long knifelike fingers pointing towards the ceiling – clenches his fists, so tight – a trail of blood slowly trickles down, like a falling raindrop. He thrusts his arm down in anger; causing a sickening crack as it hits the organ. I shudder violently. He wants to punish me. He's going to do it properly. Whimpering, I move away. I can't watch this wretch lead me to my merciless death. I'd rather die with my dignity left alone. A scorched, rotting smell fills my lungs. I can't breathe. Gagged. I am going to die. No! I will run. I will save myself. I can't. He is too strong. He throws back his demon head, and lets out a howl of laughter. I look away. Trying not to look upon his face. I can feel fear ripping; opening my chest. Can he not see that I have suffered enough? Can he not see I am sorry? I can feel a surge of dizziness rush through me as my eyes rush in and out of focus. I stand still, very straight, as if paralysed. He rests his cold, lifeless hands on my cheek. My heart contracts with sorrow and pain. My knees buckle. I grab the organ to stop me from falling. This is not happening, I'm thinking. Why? Why are you doing this? Have you no heart? No soul? You did . . . once. But now it is long gone. Buried forever. Now leaning over, to kiss me goodbye – lips purple and cracked, flesh peeling off his face like the petals of a rose. His eyes glittering. A gust of wind whips my hair, stinging some feeling back into my cheeks – some coherence back into my brain. He puts his hands round my neck. Gasping for breath. I feel like a stuffed animal. Like a balloon about to pop. He is angry. He is not going to let go. Please . . .God no! I wake up. Neck throbbing with pain. Sucking in every ounce of air. Relieved. The wind wails as it bangs against the cold glass window. A faint knocking on the door, a gentle rattle of the knob. My door creaks. I stare into oblivion as my life flashes before me. I can feel him. Watching me. Trapped.

The Challenge Facing Managed Care Organizations

The greatest challenge for managed care organizations (MCOs) in our current time is how to obtain lower priced medical fees. As we all know, American health care should essentially be a nonprofit enterprise. However, the privatization of American health care holds that health care in general and hospitals in particular are increasingly operating on a for-profit basis. In fact, the for-profit hospital sector has accounted for a relatively constant share (about 15 percent) of hospital beds over the last twenty years (Morrisson, 1999). This is why recently the U.S. Congress tries to push more â€Å"consumer-directed† health plan options to avoid cash-strapped managed care organizations (MCOs) to boost their deductibles, raise premiums and even defy federal law by authorizing policy holders to buy prescription drugs from low-cost vendors in Canada (Smith, 23 September 2004). Managed care organizations (MCOs) often apply the traditional fee-for-service models, which do not provide adequate financial controls and utilization incentives for physicians and hospitals to contain the costs of providing healthcare. Under managed care, the needs of the patients are balanced with efforts to provide cost-effective care. Typically, MCOs enroll subscribers by promising to provide all necessary medical care in exchange for a fixed monthly premium. The MCO also contracts with hospitals, physicians, and other healthcare providers to dispense the necessary medical care to its enrollees at a discounted reimbursement rate. In exchange for accepting reduced fees, the caregivers gain access to the MCO’s enrolees (Kirby, Sebastian & Hornberger, 1998). A problem with managed care is that employers who offer a health maintenance organization (HMO) to their employees often pay the premium as long as the HMO premium was not higher than the fee-for-service premium. This behavior by employers creates distorted incentives for the HMO in controlling its costs. Enthoven (1993) suggested that this incentive distortion can be corrected when employers design better alternatives for their employer contributions. The employer could contribute a fixed-dollar amount for health insurance with the employee paying the full difference between plans. The greater the portion of the marginal premium paid by the employees is, the stronger the incentive is to choose lower-cost plans. For example, if the employer pays 80 percent of the premium and the employee pays the remainder, then the employee pays only 20 percent of the difference between the low (let’s presume here) HMO premium and the higher fee-for-service premium. HMOs and other managed care arrangements are organized on a prepayment basis that appear in a wide variety of forms. An HMO could hire physicians on a salary, contract with a preexisting group practice of physicians, or contract with physicians who maintain a fee-for-service practice. According to Luft (1991), â€Å"Because specific social, legal, historical, political, and economic aspects of the medical care environment have shaped delivery systems such as the HMO, it is not reasonable to expect that the typical HMO could be transplanted intact to another country† (p. 173). The key to HMO cost savings is the organization’s wide range of medical services, both inpatient and outpatient. In this way, the HMO can receive the cost savings implied by reduced hospital use. This may be difficult to manage in systems where there are separate financing mechanisms for primary care physicians and inpatient care. As Luft (1991, p. 180) remarks. â€Å"If there were no way to shift funds from the ‘hospital side’ to the ‘physician side,’ it would be difficult to reward clinical decision makers for the development of more cost-effective practice styles.† This is why three areas appear to offer a magnitude of opportunities where MCOs can assist patients, these are ambulatory care, mental health and the alternative therapies. Firstly, ambulatory care-sensitive conditions reflect the quality and availability of primary care services, since they are readily treatable without the need for hospitalization. There are differences in the hospitalization rate for ambulatory care sensitive conditions. Shenkman et al. (2005) had indicated that specialty ambulatory care is important for many children with chronic conditions. However, access to such care may be constrained within managed care environments. The use of primary care providers (PCPs) as gatekeepers for managed care organizations (MCOs) is one commonly used strategy to control specialty care use. Studies of the impact of gatekeeping on children's receipt of specialty care have resulted in mixed findings. Some studies found more specialty care use in gatekeeping MCOs, compared with non-gatekeeping MCOs. Other researchers found that the replacement of a gatekeeping system with an open-access model increased specialty visits among a group of children with chronic conditions. Although the focus on gatekeeping in general yields some important information, MCOs use many other strategies concomitantly with their PCP gatekeepers, such as capitated payments, financial incentives, and prior authorization procedures. The use of these concomitant strategies may meet the unique needs of children with chronic conditions, including their need for specialty physician care. On the other hand, managed care had been significant contributor on delivery systems for mental health services. Taylor et al. (2001) had indicated that direct and indirect persuasion to provide more cost-effective treatments has been one consequence. The cost-saving qualities and the effectiveness of group interventions have produced clear expectations for an increased use of therapy groups. In the research of Taylor et al. (2001), they compared perceptions and uses of group treatments on a national sample of managed care organizations and mental health providers. Implications of differences and similarities between directors of managed care organizations and treatment providers are examined and discussed across five response categories (familiarity/training perceived effectiveness, likelihood of reimbursement/referral, daily use and expectation for future use). Taylor et al (2001) favored the approach where MCOs calibrate treatment referral/reimbursement decisions. Recently published comparison outcome studies and meta-analyses can and should empirically guide the present treatment delivering systems. Lastly, many managed care organizations have already begun to integrate complementary and alternative medical therapies (CAM) with conventional medical providers. Medical practitioners are obligated to assess CAM therapy with patients. Alternative therapies require professionals to rethink staff competency, patient assessment, and patient-focused care. Medical leaders must understand CAM trends and therapies to better integrate these concepts into health care policy, standards of care, and ethical decisions (Parkman, 2001). Among ambulatory care and mental health care, alternative therapies, or CAM, offers the most favorable and cost-efficient strategy for MCOs. This is because the aging â€Å"baby boom† generation is beginning to experience chronic but non-life threatening conditions, such as joint pain, headaches and menopause-related complaints and they are willing to explore options other than prescription drugs. For health plans, the attraction of offering alternative care products lies in retaining and attracting new members, diversifying their services from competitors in a congested managed care market and in attempts to address current or proposed state mandates (West, 1997). In 1997 alone, expenses for professional services were $21.2 billion, a 45% increase over the earlier 1990 data. Expenses for professional services, herbals, vitamins, diet products, books, and classes totaled $27 billion. Five surveys conducted since 1990 have reported frequent use of CAM, ranging from 30% to 73% by patients suffering from conditions such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, arthritis, HIV and AIDS, multiple sclerosis, and chronic musculoskeletal pain. Furthermore, the demand for CAM by the general public is increasing, despite the fact that its use is largely paid by consumers without coverage by third-party payers. In 1997, Americans spent an estimated $13 billion for visits to CAM providers and an additional $2 billion for commercial diet supplements and over-the-counter megavitamins (Pelletier & Astin, 2002). Managed care should not only focus on cost savings, but they should also look into diversifying their services. MCOs have generally contributed to the decline in the U.S. health cost growth rate. Their potential will continue to be limited to the extent that employers fail to offer true financial advantages to consumers who choose the low-cost health plans. Thus, more reforms in the policies should be reviewed and revised so that more people could benefit from the quality health care everyone deserves. References Enthoven, A.C. (1993). The History and Principles of Managed Competition. Health Affairs, supplement, 24-48. Kirby, E.G., Sebastian, J.G. and Hornberger, K.D. (1998, Jan/Feb). The Effect of Normative Social forces on Managed Care Organizations: Implications for Strategic management/Practitioner Response. Journal of Healthcare Management. 43(1):81-106. Luft, H. (1991). Translating the U.S. HMO Experience to Other Health System. Health Affairs 10:172-186. Morrison, I. (1999). Health Care in the New Millennium. NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Parkman, C. (2001, February). Alternative Therapies Are Here to Stay. Nursing Management, 32(2): 36-40. Pelletier, K.R. and Astin, J.A. (2002, Jan/Feb). Integration and Reimbursement of Complementary and Alternative Medicine by Managed Care and Insurance Providers: 2000 Update and Cohort Analysis. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, 8(1): 38-44. Shenkman, E., Tian, L. and Schatz, D. (2005, June). Managed Care Organization Characteristics and Outpatient Specialty Care Use Among Children With Chronic Illness. Pediatrics, 115(6): 1547-1555. Smith, C. (2004, Spetember 23). Senate Panel Examines Health Care Choices, Insurance Costs. Knight Ridder Tribune. Taylor, N.T., Burlingame, G.M., Kristensen, K.B., Fuhriman, A. et al. (2001, April). A Survey of Mental Health Care Provider's and Managed Care Organization Attitudes Toward, Familiarity With, and Use of Group Interventions. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 51(2): 243-264. West, D. (1997, November 10). MCOs Integrating Alternative Care. National Underwriter, 101(45): 58.   

Just the Unjust for Martin Luther King Jr.

When Martin Luther King Jr. was detained for having organized peaceful protests for the Negro community in Birmingham, he felt compelled to write the white clergymen who criticized the protesters instead of defending them from the immorality of segregation.   His letter accused the white clergy of not only ignoring the moral laws of God but also enacting against it because of their own prejudicial principles.   He explained the difference of just and unjust laws to show that he was merely giving his highest accordance to what is morally right. First, he said that any law that degrades human personality is just but one that degrades human personality is unjust. Western civilization created laws to put order and respect to humanity.   However, segregation, according to King, distorts the soul and damages the human character because it gives the white people a false sense of superiority to degrade the dignity of Negroes. He argues that segregation makes whites treat blacks as objects instead of considering them as people with feelings and rights like their own. Considering other people as inferior and not worthy of having the voice to speak out their needs is immoral because Christians are supposed to treat each other as brothers and not objects. In today’s American society, the woman’s right to abort her baby, I believe, is also a law that degrades the human personality.   Although women are given property over their bodies and have the right to protect their lives from problems, this does not mean that they can degrade another person – the fetus inside of them. Like the blacks that King was defending, babies have yet to find their voice in society.   It is even more inhumane to kill these babies because doing so murders the right they could have had to give their own opinion someday. Another clarification made by King on the subject of just and unjust laws refers to the implementation of a majority group’s rules over a minority.   King believes that is unfair if a majority group forces a minority to obey but does not make the rules binding on itself. Western, specifically American laws, provided that each man must have the right to vote. However, during his time, blacks were not considered as part of the American society with legal rights and therefore had no privilege to elect nor implement and revise the legal system. King believes that this is totally wrong because the laws that were being executed stepped on the human dignity and rights of the Negroes.   What the whites wanted, they got – even if it was hurtful to the lives of colored people. The law protected the white people but did not take the plight of the blacks in consideration. This still happens in America today, although it does not necessarily just encompass the Negro community.   After the fatal attack on the World Trade Center, the Bush administration has decided to go full force against terrorism without enough consideration for the human rights of the Iraqi people. The American military operations in Iraq have caused grievous insults to the dignity of the Iraqi civilians and even death.   Being the democratic majority globally, the American government has led other nations to invade another country and decided to impose its presence to â€Å"prevent† terrorism.   However, the cultural identity and traditional beliefs of the Iraqi people have been ignored greatly which I feel is very unjust. King also pointed out that sometimes a law is just on its face and unjust in its application. He cited that the clergy and government were one-sided in enacting the First Amendment especially when it came to the parades and peaceful assemblies King’s organization was organizing.   He reminds the readers that all citizens must have the right to freedom of expression even if it means going against the government’s policies. He believed that legally binding laws do not always protect what is morally right.   He also mentioned that Hitler did everything legally but the results were terribly wrong and unjust to the Jews. Laws, like most things, have advantages and disadvantages. Great care and analysis must be taken to understand what can be appropriately done for the gray areas.   American immigration laws, for example, can also be hurtful in its application if simply implemented without enough thought. U.S. deportation policies have become hurtful to many illegal immigrants who have lost their rights because they were not given enough consideration. There are many illegal immigrants who desired that better democratic life that Americans have.   Many of these do not know how to speak English well and are victims of wrong criminal accusations causing their deportment. Many of these were not able to defend themselves properly and have had to carry the burden of being separated from their children who were already born in the U.S. King’s Birmingham letter addresses the clouded and prejudiced vision of the white clergy but his clarifications on the justice of laws are classical principles that should guide every good citizen who wishes to follow any legal system.   In truth, laws are structures that help keep peace and order but one must consider everything from the view point of what is morally right and wrong.   Laws are merely man-made but the rule of God and nature should always be everyone’s primary guide.